Great Ideologies Stemming Out From Chaos Essay

Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Paine, three great political philosophers, all view the nature of man and society as anarchical, which is a state of lawlessness or political disorder due to the absence of governmental authority, making it â€Å"war of all against all†. The utopian society of individuals enjoys complete freedom without government, wherein there is a display of a lack of morality for most of the time. In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes presented the political state as a Leviathan—a sea monster. As a metaphor for the state, it is described as a replica of a person whose body is made up of all the bodies of its citizens, who are the literal members of the Leviathan’s body, and placing the sovereign as the head. In order for them to escape this natural condition, the people in the state constructed the Leviathan through social contract wherein they give up certain natural rights and transfer them to another person of authority. In turn, the power of the Leviathan protects them from the abuses of one another. The source of inequality comes from the scarcity of resources. If one looks around at other animals—Hobbes specifically notes ants and bees—they appear to live harmoniously with one another without any sort of state or society. If they can do so, then why can’t men who are, after all, â€Å"animals† themselves? Hobbes discussed several reasons as to why men cannot live this way: the main one being that men are rational creatures. If we lived in some pre-societal concord with others, reason would always devise ways for us to cheat and make ourselves better off than others in order for us to survive. Furthermore, as we humans possess speech, we are able to mislead one another about our wants and desires. Hobbes also claims that animals naturally agree with one another while humans do not, and the reason for this essentially is because man is competitive in nature and therefore views everyone around him as a threat. Therefore, the government is created to provide order and regulation. For Hobbes, the best form of government is monarchy for four reasons: first, since humans will always choose the private over the public good, the best way to ensure peace when choosing a sovereign is to have these united. And by the outweighing of private good over public ones, infighting and corruption within government is encouraged. Second, having a secret counsel is allowed in a monarchy as opposed to in a democracy or aristocracy. Third, a monarchy is more consistent: since the monarch is one person and humans are not perfectly consistent, the commonwealth changes only as human nature dictates. In a democracy and aristocracy, because more natural bodies compose the sovereign, the commonwealth is more subject to human inconsistency as well as the inconsistency that comes from a change in the makeup of the sovereign, which happens with each election cycle or new member of the aristocracy. Lastly, infighting or warring factions caused by envy, self-interest, or any other human imperfections cannot be seen in a monarchy. On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau views the government as an abomination because it interferes with the nature of man. His aim is to examine the foundations of inequality among men, and to determine whether this inequality is authorized by natural law. He attempts to demonstrate that modern moral inequality, which is created by an agreement between men, is unnatural and unrelated to the true nature of man and that it is necessary to consider human nature and to chart how that nature has evolved over the centuries to produce modern man and modern society. Like Hobbes, he describes man as just another animal, and this proves to be very important. The distinction between human and animal was used both to justify man’s possession and use of the Earth’s resources, and to explain why humans apparently have certain unique capabilities, such as reason and language. He further expounds that man is like yet unlike other animals, due to the unique way he develops. And as time goes by, human faculties were being fully developed. To be and to appear became two different things. Man became subjugated by a multitude of new needs, especially by his need for other men. Man became a slave to men as one takes pleasure in domination and tries to be their master. However, this is only true for the rich. When the powerful claims a right to another person’s goods, such as the right of property, the inequality can lead to a state of war. Therefore, the rich tried to persuade the weak, who were indeed easily convinced, to unite with them into a supreme power to institute rules of justice and peace. Men ran towards their chains in the belief that they were securing their freedom, while those who did know about the deceit thought that they could trade part of their freedom for security. Although his idea sounds wrong, it essentially represents a point at which the self-preservation and pity of savage man are perfectly balanced with the acute regard for oneself in relation to others of modern man. Some aspects of reason and communal life are good, but they are still potentially destructive. In criticizing civility and concern for others as negative features of society, Rousseau goes against the good manners and civility that are generally seen as restraining the savage features of man, as he feels that there is nothing to restrain in natural man, and civility only makes men compare themselves to one another. As for Thomas Paine’s The Rights of Man, he justifies the principles of modern republican governments. He attacks the notion of monarchy and privilege and argues that each generation has the right to establish its own system of government. No nation can legally be ruled by a hereditary monarchy because government is for the living and not the dead. No generation has the right to establish a government binding on future generations. He argues that humankind can reach its full potential under republican governments which would allow individuals to live free of privilege and caste. To sum it all up, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Paine put forward an idea of how the government sprung from inequality and lack of a central world authority. For Hobbes, an absolute monarchial government ruled by one person only, is necessary to fulfill the society’s need for order and the regulation of its people so that society can avoid from spiraling into anarchy. As for Rousseau, a government having biases towards the rich while deceiving the poor was created so that the insecurities of the people would force them in order to perpetuate inequality which make them dependent on the government, giving it more power. Lastly, for Paine, a representative and democratic government is formed to protect the people’s rights to be protected and to safeguard them from the threat of chaos, allowing the people to create an environment where they can mature and achieve their potential. Despite the differences in some parts of their ideologies such as the sources of inequality and the roles of the government, a single goal is presented—that is, for the creation of a concept of government in order to prevent the society from turning back to its nature of anarchism. While Hobbes’ â€Å"one-man rule† could lead to abuse of power, his intention is for this monarchial type of government to administer order and self-preservation in the society. As for Rousseau, the maintenance of an inequality between social classes assures the stabilization of finite resources and society itself. Lastly, for Paine, his ideal world of a representative-democratic government lies on the belief that environmental influences create the individual and that a benevolent form of government can bring about human happiness. Putting them together, their main objective can be viewed as the organization and harmonization of society so as to push it towards progression. References: (n.d.). Rights of Man. Retrieved December 20, 2012, from http://www.enotes.com/rights-man salem/rights-man SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Discourse on Inequality. Retrieved December 20, 2012, from http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/inequality/

Books can change our lives Essay

Books significantly impact and shape our lives as it can provide a vast and constant amount of knowledge that we can use in a variety of ways. They are also essential tools in education as they serve as permanent references for individuals who constantly need to educate or update themselves with information. In addition, certain books can also serve as a form of relief from the stresses of daily life by bringing us to different worlds and places that exists only in the imagination. One of the most important uses of a book is that it provides information. Whether it’s simply a basic chemical formula or equation, an economic principle, or a history of a certain country, a book can provide them all. A book on English, for example, can teach us the proper norms of grammar, pronunciation, and also widen our vocabulary, which can all be useful as we grow up and become professionals in our respective fields. Furthermore, in the field of medicine, books serve as important references for doctors and other health personnel as there are constantly new diseases and cures that are being discovered. These professionals in the health field can utilize the valuable information they obtain from a book in various ways such as diagnosing a patient’s disease or looking up a possible treatment for a certain illness or ailment. In other words, the next scientific or medical breakthrough can be found in a book. Books can also enrich our knowledge of our own culture and background. Through a good history book, we can trace how our founding fathers established our country or how the Bill of Rights was created. In short, books that provide facts and detailed information can greatly improve our intellectual capacity as well as our ability reasoning and analytical skills which we often use in our daily lives. Another way that a book can change our lives is that it inspires and feeds our imagination. This kind of book is usually in the form of fictional novels, plays, and rich literature that can take us to places we never thought we could go to. Whether it’s marveling at the works of Shakespeare, unraveling spooky mysteries with Stephen King’s novels or simply taking a stroll with the pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, books that are rich in literature and creativity can inspire us to create a world similar to those that we have read about. Moreover, these kinds of books provide deeper meaning in life by showing various sides of art and various interpretations of human life. These books can also give us different perspectives in life and can even motivate us to use and express our creative skills by writing books of our own. However, the most significant way that a book can change our lives is that the information that it provides can be shared to other people. This information can enlighten those who are confused and enhance the knowledge of those who are already well-informed. Sharing the information found in books, especially to the uneducated, can inspire them to work hard and eventually provide a better life for themselves. For example, it is possible that a relatively poor man who constantly reads good books can eventually obtain a college degree simply because he used all the information he acquired from the books he has read. It can then be said that reading books and sharing the information obtained from them can immortalize us in a way as the knowledge we posses is passed down to younger and future generations. In conclusion, books can change our lives by simply providing us with in-depth information, sources of inspiration, and valuable knowledge that we can use to continuously hone our skills and talents and eventually become better people. Books can make us the next Nobel Prize Awardee, the next CEO of a major corporation, or the next award-winning writer in the future depending on how we use the information we acquire from them. In short, it can be deduced that books are almost a necessity for us to succeed in life and become highly competent and well-rounded persons.

A Brief History Of E Commerce Information Technology Essay

A Brief History Of E Commerce Information Technology Essay Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is the term used for any type of business or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of products, services and information over electronic systems such as the internet and other computer networks. The trader and customer are not face to face at any point during these transactions, the business being conducted remotely, regardless of location. E-commerce covers a range of different types of businesses, from consumer based retail sites, through auction or music sites, to business exchanges trading goods and services between corporations. It is currently one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge. Almost all big retailers have electronic commerce presence on the World Wide Web. Although most electronic commerce involves the transportation of physical items in one way or another, a large percentage of e-commerce is conducted entirely electronically for virtual items, such as access to certain information on a website, purchasin g software or other on-line services. E-business is a superset of e-commerce   [ 1 ]   . Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of the business transactions. E-commerce can be mainly divided into Business-to-Business electronic commerce (B2B) and Business-to-Consumer electronic commerce (B2C). B2B implies that both sellers (suppliers) and buyers are business corporations, while B2C implies that buyers are individual consumers. Business-to-business e-commerce is significantly different from business-to-consumer e-commerce. While B2C merchants sell on a first-come, first-served basis, most B2B commerce is done through negotiated contracts that allow the seller to anticipate and plan for how much the buyer will purchase. In some cases B2B is not so much a matter of generating revenue as it is a matter of making connections with business partners. 1.1.1 . B2B e-commerce B2B e-commerce requires the technological sharing of information among supplies, retailers, distributors, and other interested parties to create electronic relationships. B2B e-commerce does not just comprise the transaction via the Internet, but also the exchange of information before and the service after a transaction. From the purchasing company’s point of view, B2B e-commerce is a medium for facilitating procurement management by reducing the purchase price and the cycle time.   [ 2 ]    The key players usually include selling and buying companies, deliverers, and often some type of electronic intermediaries, or third-party service providers. These associations can take many forms, yet most fall into three models. These models are classified depending on who controls the marketplace: the supplier, the buyer or the intermediary: (a) In a Supplier-Oriented Marketplace: many buyers face few suppliers. (b) In a Buyer-Orientated Marketplace: few buyers fa ce many suppliers. (c) In an Intermediary-Oriented Marketplace: many buyers face many suppliers. A) Supplier-Oriented Marketplace Supplier-Oriented Marketplaces offer a group of customers a wide spectrum of products and services and also support them in their own business. The markets can involve proprietary auctions, bid systems, and exchanges. By using Supplier-Oriented Marketplaces, suppliers are offered new types of market channels in marketing and distribution. Products can be sold directly to the customer without using intermediaries. Most manufacture-driven electronic stores use this form of market place. Successful examples of this business model are e.g. Dell and Cisco.   [ 3 ]   Both Dell and Cisco sold and sell their products via the Internet. However, not only Dell and Cisco use the Supplier-Oriented Marketplace, there are thousands of other companies using this model. Cisco’s main business is providing electronic support using the Internet. The main applicati ons are software downloads, defect tracking and technical advice. Cisco’s business model also includes customer service and finding order status, as well as selling routers, switches and other network interconnect devices.

True Sale in Securitization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

True Sale in Securitization - Essay Example The power to sell the receivables by the creditor stems from the concept of securitization, which is a â€Å"contractual right of a creditor to sell the goods of the debtor and apply the proceeds thereof in or towards the satisfaction of the debt.†1 There are three types of securitization currently used in the market. First, it could be treated as a â€Å"true sale† which is characterized by a transfer of all rights over the receivables to the SPV by the originator. Second is the synthetic securitization where the originator does not sell the accounts receivables but enters into a derivative transaction. Third, are the whole business securitizations, which a form of secured financing, and not a sale of the accounts receivables from the originator to the SPV. Of the three types of treatment, the rue sale may prove to be the safer ground for the seller. There are two points of view in true sale transactions namely the originator’s perspective and that of the SPV. Since Bank A falls under the category of an originator, we will then the originator’s perspectives. As earlier discussed, securitization is aimed at raising funds. For the originator, it is also a method of extracting profit. However, extraction of profit must be done with caution as it has the tendency to run foul with regulations and accounting principles. Under the rules and guidelines of the Securitisation and Asset Transfers (SE) as embodied in the FSA’s Interim Prudential Sourcebook for Banks, extraction of profits may be effected in the following manners, namely (a) as administration fees.

Factors that Medium-Sized Companies Need to Think Introducing ERP Research Paper

Factors that Medium-Sized Companies Need to Think Introducing ERP System - Research Paper Example Moreover, it has been found that many organizations that have implemented these systems have failed to materialize these systems set out benefits. In fact many organizations have shown results which are totally against the argument supporting the installation of ERP systems in an organization. Research findings have discovered many variables that are needed for the successful implementation of these systems in an organization. Amongst these variables are: top management support, organizational culture, sound implementation plan, user involvement, and etch. On the technical side, variables which are of prime importance are: sound system architecture, data integrity, system interface and etch. Researchers have also found that for the successful implementation of these systems, the top management of the organization needs to clarify the scope of these systems. This scope should be very clear and free from any kind of ambiguity. The importance of this finding stem from the fact that not every business process can be integrated with the ERP system, and in case an organization is unclear about this fact than there are likely chances that it will try to bring many undue processes into the relevant scope of the ERP project. This behavior or action will keep adding cost to the entire project’s cost, ultimately leading to the project getting over budget. This cost might be so high that it might not justify the value of the benefits derived from these systems. It is therefore of utmost importance that the project team is given a clear scope and vision for the entire project. It is also important that the project team place especial emphasis on the systems architecture, because too much customization of the system may render the system inefficient. It would be better that an organization implementing these systems, tailor its business processes according to the fields of the software. Since these software suits represent the best practices of the industry, therefore it would not be wrong to use these fields rather than tailoring them to correspond to the existing business processes of the organization. SMEs have to carefully consider all the intricacies involved with the implementation of these systems because they do not have the strong capital base to support any mishap encountered during the implementation of these systems. These companies need to be very clear about the objectives they seek to accomplish by installing ERP systems in their operations, because otherwise they would end upon incurring a capital outlay that would be difficult to replenish. INTRODUCTION: In order to respond to the needs of its marketplace, a business must have accurate and updated information about its suppliers, customers, employees, invoices and payment and most importantly about its own products and services. A business needs to organize its work activities which use this information to operate efficiently and enhance the overall performance of the firm. Info rmation systems are the means by which an organization can manage all its vital information and tailor this information in a manner that allows it to make better decisions and improve the execution of their business processes. Information systems are fundamentally aimed at improving the business process of a company. The manner, in which an organization’s work is organized, coordinated and focused to produce a

Adoption of Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 as an Important Piece of Term Paper

Adoption of Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 as an Important Piece of Legislation - Term Paper Example In the last section the report evaluates the costs and benefits of the changes ushered in by the Sarbanes-Oxley act of 2002. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was drafted by the senator Paul Sarbanes and representative Michael Oxley (SOX-online.com, 2006: Online). The primary objective of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act was to protect and safeguard the interests of the investors by assuring transparency, accuracy and reliability of the financial disclosures made by the corporations. It is a mandatory Act and all the large and small US organizations are required to abide by and follow the provisions and requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. This Act came into force in the year 2002 and brought in sweeping changes into the area of financial disclosure and corporate governance (Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 2006: Online). The Enhanced Standards Required by Sarbanes-Oxley Act The Sarbanes-Oxley Act not only established new standards of financial accounting and corporate governance but also made provisions f or the apt statutory penalties to be imposed in case of any wrongdoing not allowed for and sanctioned by this act. The Act made the corporate accounting system more transparent and responsible by formalizing and assuring the interaction between corporate auditors and corporate boards and executives . This totally obliterated the possibility of an excuse on the part of top executives in corporations regarding being unaware of the organizational accounting systems and the accompanying disclosures made by the auditors. To put it simply, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act made the top executives like CEOs and CFOs directly responsible for corporate accounting and subsequently culpable in case of any wrongdoing or misreporting in the organization’s financial reporting (US Securities and Exchange Commission 2010: Online). This act clearly specifies the responsibilities associated with the organizational financial accounting. Sarbanes-Oxley Act has also introduced a mechanism of internal contro ls and monitoring to assure the credibility of financial reporting (US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2010: Online). According to this act, the companies are required to tag an internal control report with every financial report (US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2010: Online). The yearly financial reports are also required to report on the reliability and effectiveness of the internal controls (US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2010: Online). Further, the concerned auditing firms are required to stand behind these reports (US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2010: Online). This places the onus on the auditing firms to review the associated procedures, controls and policies, besides conducting the regular financial audit (US Securities and Exchange Commission, 2010: Online). In case a company fails to abide by any requirement or section of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the act allows for a range of penalties for the culprit organization and executives, which include fine s amounting to

Sexual Harassment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sexual Harassment - Essay Example In Vinson verses Meritor Savings Bank, 477 United States 57 in 1986: the United States Supreme Court acknowledged harassment lawsuits against firms for encouraging a sexually aggressive work setting. In 2006, United States’ Head of the state then, George W. Bush endorsed a law that banned the spread of irritating messages on the Internet (also known as spamming) with no discloser of the transmitter's identity. Harassment is unwelcome behavior that is centered on religion race, sex (including pregnancy), citizen origin, color, age (41 or older), and disability. Harassment becomes illegal where 1) stomaching the offensive behavior becomes a situation of sustained employment, or 2) the behavior is severe and persistent enough to make a work setting that a sensible person would ponder intimidating, hostile, and abusive. Anti-discrimination directives also forbid harassment against persons in retribution for filing a prejudice charge, attesting, or playing a part in any manner duri ng an investigation, lawsuit, or proceeding under these directives; or opposing occupation drills that they rationally believe victimize against persons, in defilement of these laws (Walsh 76).Annoyances, petty slights, and unrepeated incidents (unless very serious) will not amount to the point of criminality. To be illegal, the conduct has to create an employment setting which would be hostile, intimidating, or unpleasant to rational people (Walsh 78). Aggressive conduct may comprise, yet not restricted to, slurs, offensive jokes, epithets and name-calling, physical attacks and threats, bullying, ridicule and mockery, invectives and put-downs, invasive objects and pictures, in addition to meddling with work execution. Harassment can transpire in a range of situations, comprising, but not restricted to, the following: The harasser could be the victim's overseer, a boss in another area, a negotiator of the proprietor, a colleague, or even a non-worker. The victim does not need to be the individual harassed, however, can be anybody affected by the unpleasant conduct. Illegal harassment may arise with no economic damage to, or acquittal of, the victim (Walsh 78). Avoidance is the effective tool to eradicate harassment within the place of work. Employers are urged to take suitable steps to avert and correct illegal harassment. They ought to communicate to workers that undesirable harassing behavior will not be stomached. They can achieve this by forming an effective grievance process, offering anti-harassment coaching to their employees and managers, and taking instant and suitable action once a worker protests. Employers should endeavor to form a setting in which workers feel open to raise trepidations and are self-assured that those apprehensions will be tackled. Employees are urged to notify the harasser openly that the demeanor is undesirable and has to stop. Employees must also convey harassment to administration at a primary stage to inhibit its escalation ( Friedman 40). The company is inevitably accountable for harassment through an overseer whose harassment ensues in an undesirable employment deed such as dissolution, failure to hire and promote, in addition to loss of salaries. If the overseer's harassment ensues in an aggressive work setting, the manager can avoid legal responsibility only

Eassy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Eassy - Essay Example No wonder, the writer compared it to today’s terrorism rather than calling it a war. Since Warfare differs from terrorism in that the violent actions in the former are aimed at the combatants on each side and public generally is made aware that a war has erupted. Terrorist acts target innocent people deliberately. In warfare, innocents are not the primary targets. But this definition of war does not apply to Hiroshima bombing. Berger further proves his point as: â€Å"The two bombs dropped on Japan were terrorist actions. The calculation was terrorist. The discriminacy was terrorist. The small groups of terrorists operating today are, by comparison, humane killers" (273). The writer supports his comment by saying that terrorists also attack unaware common people at the railway station, in the market or people going home after the work. The war and terrorism are the evils and it is first duty of human kind to fight against evils and preserve life. This concept of ‘evil’, however, has been abandoned and it remains just an adjective today. The writer also discloses that today’s terrorists are from small nation who have dispute over large powers while Hiroshima atom bomb attack was made on a nation that had conceded defeat and was ready for negotiations (273). â€Å"While doctor and nurses at hospitals across the city tended to hundreds of damaged people, a disquieting sense grew throughout the day at other triage centers and emergency rooms that there, would, actually be less work: the morgues were going to be busiest.† (418) In the normal life, even a distant thought of a loved one’s death creates fear and we scold ourselves for such a thing, but seeing the gory dance of death and losing precious lives due to such outrageous and mindless violent act is unbelievable to most of us. A war without principles and terrorism are both extremely cowardly deeds. He continues: â€Å"But the real carnage was concealed for now by the twisted, smoking,

Cartel Behavior and Amateurism in College Sports Essay

Cartel Behavior and Amateurism in College Sports - Essay Example Surprisingly, those working hard to produce the rents are African-American athletes while the whites come out as the beneficiaries. This discourse takes an in-depth critique of Lawrence Kahn’s article and in the process evaluates facts that he outlines. The paper also separates facts from fictitious information in the article. Critique Lawrence Kahn explains that African-American athletes produce the rents benefited by white Americans. He mentions that the African-American sportspersons spent their rent on facilities, head coaches salaries, and nonrevenue sports. The football programs earn revenue from accounting profits. This also happens in the field of basketball. Evaluation of the role of NCAA appears at two levels. One extreme end is people who believe that efforts by NCAA to restrict payments to sportspeople enhance the value of sports by upholding amateurism. The other group holds that NCAA is a cartel that restricts compensation to sportsmen and women. Since its incept ion, the NCAA has been controlling the capacity for its members to access televised games. This started in 1984. This is a typical characteristic of a cartel where it prevents members from accessing and doing business with other competing firms in the industry. This is to avoid a share of the rents produced by sportsmen and women. The cartel wants to enjoy all the money. This is the reason that informed the formation of College Football Association (CFA). The behavior of NCAA towards is enough proof that it is a cartel. Cartels thrive on threats and sanctions. The NCAA threatened to expel any school and higher institution of learning that would sign a different contract following CFA’s readiness to negotiate a different and parallel contract with NBC. Threats by NCAA amounted to schools under CFA loosing on the revenue from the basketball tournament. This is total tyranny. In the modern liberal market, business associations and companies cannot thrive on threats and financial embargos. Finally, the NCAA succeeded in enjoying all the revenues generated from football television rents. The change in broadcasting rights appeared for the first time in college sports following a successful court petition by the University of Oklahoma and the University of Georgia. Cases in the judiciary point to the fact that indeed the NCAA is a cartel. Courts proved in 1995 that it was engaged in backroom dirty tricks to limit salaries for assistant coaches. An association existing for the welfare of members such as NCAA needs to engage making lives for their members. However, NCAA does the reverse. It is very difficult to comprehend what good is in limiting a pay for members and proudly claim to be generating a fair playground for your members. Lawrence Kahn cannot purport to justify the role of NCAA to limit compensation as efforts towards enhancing sports by maintaining amateurism. Kahn explains the value of amateurism by stating the large of members in NCAA makes it dif ficult for it to put ceilings on earnings of sportsmen and women. He holds that a possibility of NCAA failing to prevent a competitive market among players due to the high number of members is farfetched. This point by Lawrence Khan does not hold water. NCAA is cartel and members of such an association have to operate within the rules. Therefore, the rules apply to all irrespective of the size of membership.

Recession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Recession - Essay Example The beginning and impacts of the 2008 recession in individual countries today remains a constant reminder of the policies and measures the governments and financial analysts in the financial institutions ought to address as priorities. Most economists and analysts tend to emphasis on the start and spread of the recession in 2008. While its spread is quite clear in the western countries during and after 2008, there is no doubt it began in the United States towards the end of 2007. The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) recognizes the global recession to have started in December 2007 in the US economy, when it was identified with the sliding of the labour market especially in the last quarter of the year (Borbely, 2009). However, it was only a hit for the national economy of the US until it spread to other linked economies in 2008. The cause of the recession is linked to the economic cyclic performance of the housing market in USA, which later affected the economic performances of other industries. The United Stated had been experiencing a steady economic growth, with a healthy labour market and a rapid growth in the housing market after 2001. In the housing sector, home prices increased and more construction took place, contributing to increased employment, mortgage financing and growth in real estates and generated a positive wealth effect that triggered higher spending vital for the overall economic growth (Goodman and Mance, 2011). All the housing price inflations in the USA tended to follow a particular pattern after WWWII. The 2001-2006 case was no exception, as it was a period marked with loose monetary policy. Two years prior to the 2007 recession, the US economy experienced expansion in credit and money supply. This fuelled excessive borrowing at low interest rates to finance housing purchases; this in turn increased aggregate demand for household products and other consumption (stlouisfed.org, 2010).

Dietary Supplements Report Essay Example for Free

Dietary Supplements Report Essay Dietary supplements are products intended for ingestion as supplements to the diet. Dietary supplements can have vitamins, herbs, enzymes, extracts, plant substances, amino acids, botanicals, and concentrates. Supplements are beneficial to the body because they can enhance the nutrients in foods, aid in weight loss, provide energy, cure illnesses, optimize health, and protect against diseases. If a person does not consume enough nutrients because of a disease or eating habits dietary supplements are extremely beneficial. There are certain groups that benefit most from dietary supplements; pregnant women, vegetarians, dieters, and the elderly. An increase of folic acid and iron is needed to reduce the risk of defects and prevent anemia. Vegetarians should take vitamin B12 because they do not eat animal foods which contain more vitamin B12 than any other food source. If a person eats less than 1200 calories when on a diet, they will not get the amount of nutrients needed. If dieters take a multi-vitamin they will meet the daily recommendations for nutrients. Anyone over the age of 50 should take calcium, Vitamin D, and B12 to maintain a healthy life. Calcium and vitamin D will help keep the bones strong, lower blood pressure, and prevent diseases like osteoporosis and multiple sclerosis. Vitamin B12 will promote heart health and fight fatigue. There are many risks when taking dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are not regulated or tested by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for side effects before they are available to consumers (â€Å"The skinny on dietary supplements,† 2008). Dietary supplements are also harmful because they contain chemicals that can be harmful. Some supplements contain non-essential hormones and enzymes. Dietary supplements may cause medications, over-the-counter or prescribed, to work differently or not at all. When taking any supplement it is important to read the label and ask a physician before taking the supplement to reduce chances of toxicity. Many people think dietary supplements provide all the nutrients needed to support a healthy diet; they are only part of a ealthy diet (Grosvenor, 2006). As stated earlier, the government does not regulate dietary supplements as they do other foods and drugs (U. S. Food and Drug Administration: Dietary Supplements, 2013). In 1994 the government created the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA). The act states manufacturers are responsible for ensuring the product is safe before it is put on the market. If the product is unsafe after it is on the market the FDA is respon sible for taking action to correct the issue. The FDA is responsible for providing product information and literature. It is the manufacturer’s responsibility to ensure all ingredients are listed on the labels of the product and the information is true. The manufacturer has to submit reports for any supplement that has any type of negative reaction. The FDA implemented a Dietary Supplement Current Good Manufacturing Practice (CGMPs) that all personnel in the company must follow to ensure quality control. Supplements are needed by people with life-threatening diseases like kidney failure. People that have kidney failure, depending on the type of dialysis they use, peritoneal or hemodialysis. Peritoneal dialysis uses osmosis and diffusion through the peritoneal cavity to remove waste and fluid; this process causes a lack of potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Hemodialysis uses an artificial kidney to remove wastes and fluids from the blood; this process causes a lack of phosphorus, iron, and epogen. The common bond between both types of dialysis is the lack of phosphorus. Phosphorus supplements are used to strengthen the bones of dialysis patients, prevent renal bone disease, and keep the heart healthy. The dose varies from patient to patient, depending on the food intake. If the patient does not take the prescribed dose they experience many different effects. If too much of the phosphorus supplement is ingested, itching will occur. If not enough phosphorus is ingested, weakness will occur and bones will begin to get brittle causing them to break.

Victors beard Essay Example for Free

Victors beard Essay One point to make about the birth process before it has even begun is the location. The room that the creation takes place in is a hidden laboratory inside the university that Victor is working at, and the room for the birth process is hidden behind a curtain so its hidden from people if they were to come into the laboratory. The wall is stone and the insides have beams on the roof, which remind you of a cold room. The use of stone is used because stone is generally cold and old beams, which remind you of old, haunted houses. Also the room is dark and scary which may create suspense for the audience who dont know what may be round any of these dark corners. This is a place you wouldnt want to be in, this may also create sympathy for the creature as he is not looked after and has been shoved away in an old room. In the Whale version the birth scene is set in an old disused mill in the country. Inside the mill the walls are again stone which gives the cold feeling. It is dark and dingy and relies on torches for light, which adds to the gothic medieval feel of the film. In Mary Shellys adaptation the birth scene begins just after Victors wife to be Elizabeth falls out with him because she asks him to come back with her and to stop stressing himself out with his work. We then see him pull back a curtain and we see in the mis-en-scene the huge laboratory that has been set up by Victor. He then walks into the laboratory and we see a low angle tracking shot of him running though the laboratory, the use of the low angle shot gives us the impression that Victor is a big powerful man. As he is running through the laboratory we see him wearing a cloak, which suggests to the audience the idea that he has power like a scientist or magician, sorcerer. As he gets to the creature, his cloak is casually thrown onto the clothes hook, and we can see by this point Victor no longer cares. Now we can see that he has been working so hard on the birth of the creature that his shirt is now ragged, dirty and the top buttons on his shirt are un-done and his shirt is hanging off his skin more now. This may mean now that if the creature doesnt live he doesnt necessarily care about the creature surviving, or it could mean he has been working so hard he hasnt had time to change and this shows his determination to his work. Also Victor wears his shirt with the sleeves rolled up; this is another way of saying he is again determined to his work. Also Victors beard is unshaven which is a certain way to tell that he has been persisting in this experiment for quite a while without sleep. We then see Victor pulling down several handles and we then see a tracking shot of the creatures body which is being transported around by pulleys on the roof, and we see the creature is being banged around up on the pulleys. Still, at this time, we havent seen the creature; this creates suspense and is a clever idea by Branagh, as this keeps the audience wanting to know, as they dont even know if they are going to see the creature because if the creature doesnt live they might not see it.

Development of Translation Studies and Approaches

Development of Translation Studies and Approaches Introduction The present monograph is an attempt to demonstrate the fact that Translation Studies is not a mere branch of linguistics but an extensive discipline with many branches and very significant results. In the next pages, there will be four main parts: the first part will focus on the development of translation studies from writings on translation to translation studies as an academic discipline. The second part will deal mainly with the Islamic culture and its principles, and will try to give an answer to the question Is the Islamic culture translatable? The third part will be an introduction to the different types of culture and will show their different levels of untranslatability. The same part will also focus on the translators skills introducing them as major factors leading to a better target text. As a final step, the fourth and last part will link translation to the Islamic culture, in an attempt to highlight the untranslatability of the Islamic culture in the Quranic discourse, especially the material side of it, and also to state the comments of Muslim scholars on the translations of the holy Quran. Translation is a process based on the theory that it is possible to abstract the meaning of a text from its forms and reproduce that meaning with the very different forms of a second language. Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (Larson l998, p. 3) In practice, there is considerable variation in the types of translations produced by translators. Some translators work only in two languages and are competent in both, while others work from their first language to their second language, and still others from their second language to their first language. Depending on these matters of language proficiency, the procedures used will vary from project to project. On the development of translation studies I see translation as an attempt to produce a text so transparent that it does not seem to be translated. A good translation is like a pane of glass, you only notice that its there when there are little imperfections- scratches, bubbles. Ideally, there shouldnt be any. It should never call attention to itself. Introduction First, it has to be clearly asserted that there exist many traditions concerning the first writings on translation, and as it is impossible to mention all of them, the focus will be about Europe and the Arab world. This chapter deals with the emergence of the earliest writings on translation and also the birth of the new discipline translation studies in the last few decades. Writings on Translation Europe Among the first writings on translation were Ciceros[1] Libellus de optimo genere oratorun, Horaces[2] Ars poetica of circa and the translation of the Bible as a practical side. For this reason, Europeans believe that translation started with the Romans and the Greeks, but it is very important to bear in mind that translation might have started so long before. And there are proofs for that in many parts of the world. Hung and Pollard (1998:366) claim that there were government officials with responsibility for translation in China 9th century BC. But Cicero and Horace gave much importance to the problems of translation, produced different theories and highly influenced the next generation of translators. It is they who initiated the distinction between word to word and sense for sense translation, which retains its significance till now[3]. It is a fact today that India, china, Iraq and Spain have in many ways shaped the European culture. In the ninth and tenth century in Baghdad the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece were translated into Arabic, with the emergence of the famous library called beitu al hikma established by the Abbasside khalifa Al Mamoon. Those translated into Arabic books which transmit the Greek Culture, including religions, mythology and philosophy, spread to Europe through Spain which was at that time under Muslim governance. Later on, with the school of Toledo, translations were made from Arabic to Latin and helped in the European Renaissance. Another important tradition that was influential in Europe is Bible translation. It is believed that with the translation of Bible started the first thoughts about translation theory. It was very important, for Bible translators, at that time, to respect the sacred scripts, and at the same time to guarantee that the target text would be understandable after translation. The first translator to complete the translation of the Bible into English is John Wycliffite who believed that everyone in the world should have access to the word of God in ones language. After that came the translation made by forty-seven scholars and translators, eight years after the accession of King James to the English throne[4], which is the principle version adopted in many Christian countries. The modern period of Bible translation started by the revisions of the Bible, and new translations have been made. Nida (1998:27-28) says that Bible translators (in the modern period) often work in teams of three to five full time translators. One notices that Bible translators in the modern period made great efforts to make the target text as clear and understandable as possible, without neglecting the addition of the necessary background information using the footnote system and other techniques in order to respect the original text. The Arab World The early translations in the Arab world date back to the period of Syrians. They translated into Arabic a large heritage. Syrians were highly influenced by the Greek translations. Syrians translations were more literal and faithful to the original claims Ayad (1993:168, qtd by Addidaoui, 2000)[5]. According to Addidaoui, Jarjas was one of the best Syrian translators; his famous Syrian translation of Aristotles book In The World was very faithful and close to the original. In addition to that, the coming of Islam was very significant to the development of translation in the Arab world; Prophet Mohammed peace be upon him tried to spread Islam through different means. One of those means was communication; he communicated with Jews, Romans and others, and that is what pushed him to encourage the learning of others languages and to look for translators to help in communication. At that period of time, Prophet Mohammed exchanged letters with kings of Persia, Syria, Jews and Rome, and Zaid Ibn Tabet was the Prophets translator. The history of translation in the Arab world highlighted also the name of Al Jahid; one of the important theorists in translation. The theories of Al Jahid are still used today by many professional Arab translators. Al Jahid (1969:75) says: the translator should know the structure of the speech, habits of the people and their ways of understanding each other.[6] In addition to the structure and the habits, Al Jahid talked also about the significance of re-translating and put a wide range of theories in his two books Al-Hayawan (1969) and Al-Bayan WA Attabyyin (1968). In short, the history of translation in the Arab world knew many changes, and became very rich in theories. New theorists appeared in each era with new perceptions and new ways of analyzing. Translation in the Arab world, today, started to develop, and new fields of research in translation appear each year, especially with the efforts of the Arabic Academia in Translation studies. Translation Studies: An academic Discipline Translation studies is an academic discipline which concerns itself with the study of translation[7]; the term today is understood to refer to the study of the academic discipline at large, including non literary translation, interpretation, pedagogy and other issues. As an academic discipline, translation studies is just a few decades old. Starting from 1950, scholars and experts were interested in forming coherent theories and conducting research on translation, but it is also true that not so much had been done within the framework of this new discipline, and there are still issues to be analyzed and discussed. That is because scholars went deeply in relating translation studies to other disciplines such as psychology, anthropology and, very recently, cultural studies. One has now to acknowledge the fact that translation studies as a discipline found its place among other academic disciplines and has become independent. Thanks to the Dutch scholar James S. Holmes, translation studies is defined as a discipline being concerned with the complex problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations (Holmes 1988b/2000: 173) Mona baker, in 1997, stated that the new discipline is very rich and it brings together scholars from a variety of more traditional disciplines.[8] The Islamic culture If everybody is looking for it, then nobody is finding it. If we were cultured, we would not be conscious of lacking culture. We would regard it as something natural and would not make so much fuss about it. And if we knew the real value of this word we would be cultured enough not to give it so much importance. Introduction In the present chapter, several points are to be accentuated. First, the notion of culture; what is meant by the word culture from different points of view. Second, I will try to relate culture to Islam; I will define the Islamic culture and discuss its levels and I will mention some principles of the Islamic culture and hopefully clarify them. The last point to be dealt with is the translatability of the Islamic culture; to what extent is the Islamic culture translatable? The notion of culture Culture is the customs, ideas, civilization, etc. of a particular society or a group of people[9]. It is a set of ideas, beliefs and ways of behaving of an organization or a group of people[10]. The notion of culture is quite very hard to define. The two meanings stated above are the most widespread; they define culture as a summary of human gaining in its interaction with its physical and social environment and religious sources[11]. It is extremely necessary to keep in mind that there are some dominant cultures, may be for the reason that they are powerful, and as a result influential. Translation, involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in one language by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group, entails a process of cultural de-coding, re-coding and en-coding. As cultures are increasingly brought into greater contact with one another, multicultural considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree. One is not just dealing with words written in a certain time, space and sociopolitical situation; most importantly it is the cultural aspect of the text that should be taken into account. The process of transfer, i.e., re-coding across cultures, should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-à  -vis the target culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader. Indeed, correct translation is not word for word substitution from one language into another, but it requires some understanding of the way people live and think. The meaning of a word in a language is derived from its culture and represents the main connection between language and culture. Religion and culture It is universally acknowledged that religion represents the very first element in a group of peoples culture which noticeably influences their way of living. For this reason, peoples cultures differ as the religions differ. It is a fact that most of the expressions used, by a group of people, in the language of everyday life is generally based on religious vocabulary. One may discover the culture of the others only through their speeches, especially those people who keep on being faithful to the religious language. Muslims, for instance represent the most noticeable case for there are many Quranic expressions in Muslims daily life; in Moroccan Arabic it is common to say: . This expression is derived from the Quran they said pray to your Lord for us, that He may make clear to us what kind it should be. They said pray to your Lord for us, that He may make clear to us what its color should be.[12] This expression is used in the Moroccan Arabic to express how difficult it is to do or possess something. The principles of Islamic culture One of the dominant cultures today in the whole world is the Islamic culture. This culture has two main aspects: the first is stable (Sacred Sources) and the second is changing (the interaction with environment).[13] The Islamic culture, as all other cultures, has principles most of which are shared with other human communities: Respect of the other. Co-operation with others. Reliance on science and knowledge. Mutual help and support. Disapproval of wrong deeds. These are considered the most important principles of the Islamic culture. The Islamic culture: Translatable? The question that can be raised, in this part, is: to what extent is the Islamic Culture Translatable? It is a fact that the Islamic culture shares a lot in common with other cultures with different religions. E.g. the word exists in some other languages, the speakers of which also believe that there is one  «God ». As a result, the word Allah is translatable. But there are words and senses which are specific to the Islamic culture, and which will be dealt with in the last part of this paper. This highlights the fact that the terms dealing with the religious aspects of a culture are the most difficult, both in understanding the SLT and providing the best equivalence in the TLT, Larson (1984:180). The second point which is important as well is that sameness cannot exist between two languages, Bassnett (1991:30), for the reason that the TL reader is not aware of the different aspects of meaning involved. Cultural untranslatability A translation is no translation, he said, unless it will give you the music of a poem along with the words of it. Introduction Modern linguistic studies showed that language is not a mere physiological, but also a cultural phenomenon, and translation is by nature a very important aspect in cross-cultural communication. The role of translation, therefore, is to introduce one culture to another by means of translating. But very often cultural factors become the barrier in translation and result in untranslatability. Types of cultural untranslatability According to some translation scholars, such as Nida, there exist five distinct types of culture: historical culture, geographical and psychological culture, material culture, customs and traditions as well as religious culture. Historical Culture It refers to the culture settled and formed during a nations development. The historical culture differs from one society to another because the historical development differs as well. This kind of difference impedes intercultural communication. To best illustrate this impediment, Adams apple, which refers to the lump on the front of a mans throat, can never be translated into Chinese except by its literal meaning because this term is originated from a Biblical story. Geographical and psychological culture Different nations geographical and psychological culture is also a main barrier in translation. Because of the different geographical environments and different nations mentalities, the same word will have totally different meanings in two different cultures. East wind in Japan and English is a vivid example. Japanese people favor the east wind, for it is always a symbol of spring and warmness while people in Britain dislike the east wind, because the east wind is from the northern part of the European continent, so it always symbolizes coldness and sadness. In Britain the favorite wind is the west wind. That is the reason why word for word translation never works. Also meanings of some colors are different. In English, green is always connected with envy and blue with moon, so there are such expressions green with envy and once in a blue moon. Those expressions cannot be translated into Arabic using the words green and blue. Thus, they are translated as - instead. Material culture One should pay much more attention when translating words which reflect the material culture. For example, the word cricket is an important word in the English language, for it is a popular outdoor game in Britain, and plays an important role in peoples daily life. The following saying It is as significant as a game of cricket. best illustrates this point. If we want to translate this sentence, we should add some background information for the TL reader considering that playing cricket is not widely spread in other countries. Another example is the term meat technologist. Moroccan readers may feel confused if the term is translated as . While according to its cultural background, this term simply means the butcher, because meat technologist is a euphemism for the butcher in western countries. By using this term, butchers may think highly of their profession. Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms are subject to the widest variety of translation procedures (Newmark, 1988:97). The terms coming under this category are further complicated due to the foreign elements present. One such case is the reference to the brightly colored pà ¢tisseries tunisiennes. Translating according to the French idea of pà ¢tisseries would imply using the English cakes or pastries yet in the context of Tunisian culture this hardly seems appropriate, bearing in mind the difference in form of the TL reference. This illustrates the theory developed by Mounin (1963) who underlines the importance of the signification of a lexical item claiming that only if this notion is considered will the translated item fulfill its function correctly. In this case the translation as sweets seems to correspond to the idea of the original signification, even if it is a more abstract translation of the French original, and is the refore more appropriate concerning its function in the TT than a translation of formal equivalence. Another example of material culture includes an eponym, namely bouteilles de Sidi Brahim. In France this low-quality, Algerian wine is widely known and is the traditional drink with North African dishes, therefore widely sold in supermarkets as well as this type of small shop. This example can be seen as corresponding to the new ideal reader as described by Coulthard, having different cultural knowledge (Coulthard, 1992:12) as an English-speaking reader would not necessarily know the name of this wine and even less its associations. By using strictly formal equivalence, all meaning would be lost. It would however be possible to neutralize the original term Sidi Brahim by translating as wine or else to introduce a form of componential analysis, translating as cheap, Algerian wine. Sidi Brahim being the area where the wine is produced, it seems appropriate to keep the original term in the TT but it is necessary to add a qualifier, here wine. In this way, although the cultural implicati ons are not as strong as for an initiated French reader, the information is passed on and elucidated by a qualifier. The cultural implications automatically understood by the ST reader, namely the notion of cheap, low-quality wine, are not however conveyed, the emphasis in this context being on the exotic nature of the product as conveyed by Sidi Brahim and not on the low cost. Customs and traditions The different customs and traditions in the daily activities around the world reflect the different cultural mentalities. For instance, In China, when people meet each other in the street, they always greet like this where will you go or what will you do. In fact, this kind of greetings is very rude and impolite in western countries, for it is an interference with privacy. Instead, they are translated as hello good morning or how are you. Religious culture Religious culture means the culture formed by a nations religious beliefs and common sense. This type of culture usually impedes the transfer of meaning to a TL since different peoples have different religions. The phrase ( ) is an Arabic term God willing or If it is Gods will is a good example. It derives from Islamic scripture, Surat Al Kahf (18):24: But only If God wills! And remember your Lord when you forget This phrase is now used excessively in Moroccan Arabic. Unfortunately, it is often used to delay events or to avoid giving a definite answer. Levels of Cultural untranslatability Catford states that Cultural untranslatability takes place when a relevant situational feature in the SL is absent in the TL. This cultural untranslatability has different levels. The level changes for the reason that some words are completely untranslatable whereas other words are very hard to find equivalence to in the TL. For this specific reason, the translator has to be skillful and experienced. The translator has to be bilingual as well as bicultural in order to have a better TLT. The translators skills: an important factor It is now a common belief that the translators skills play a major role in delivering a good translation. A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988)[14] sets criteria for a good translation as follows: A good translation is easily understood. A good translation is fluent and smooth. A good translation is idiomatic. A good translation conveys, to some extent, the literary subtleties of the original. A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and the literal. A good translation reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original. A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations, and in allusions to sayings, songs, and nursery rhymes. A good translation will convey, as much as possible, the meaning of the original text. Enani (1994:5)[15] defines the translator as a writer who formulates ideas in words addressed to readers. The only difference between him and the original writer is that these ideas are the latters. Another difference is that the work of the translator is even more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to produce directly his/her ideas and emotions in his/her own language however intricate and complicated his/her thoughts are. The translators responsibility is much greater, for s/he has to relive the experiences of a different person, states Antar S. Abdullah[16]. To conclude, the above analysis shows that translating is an activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 1978: 200)[17]. As this statement implies, translators are permanently faced with the problems of how to treat the cultural aspects in a source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate technique to successfully convey these aspects in the target language. Translation and the Islamic culture Indeed, there has come to you light and a clear book from Allah; with it (the Quran) Allah guide him who seeks His pleasure into the ways of safety and brings them out of utter darkness into light by his will and guides them to the right path. (Almaidah V: 15-16) Introduction The Quran, for the Muslim, comprehends the complete code for all human beings to live a good, chaste, abundant and rewarding life in obedience to the commandments of Allah. It is the chart of life for every human being, and it is the constitution of the Kingdom of Heaven on Earth. The Quran was an oral text throughout the lifetime of Muhammad. It was also a fluid text. The complete text resided only in the memories of Muhammad and his followers. As he added verses and reorganized the text, his followers would rememorize the text in the light of the additions or edits. This means that the Quran was a living text during the lifetime of Muhammad. Certain verses revealed to Muhammad were later repudiated by him as satanic verses revealed not by Gabriel but by Satan. These verses were expunged from the text that so many had memorized. The untranslatability of the Quran Because the Quran is for every human being, it transcends the boundaries of the Arab world and goes beyond it. The Quran is addressed to all peoples without exception. It carries a universal message to all human beings regardless of their race or color. It is true in our days that the translation of the Quran represents one of the most important elements in the Quranic studies, mainly, because it is the first book non-Muslims encounter when attempting to well understand Islam. The Quran exists in its original language, i.e., Arabic. Some Muslim scholars agree that the true Quran is in Arabic, in its original wording as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him); therefore, it should only be recited in the Arabic language. The translations however are the work of humans. And since these translations subtly change the meaning, they are often called interpretations. For instance, Pickthall (1930) called his translation The Meaning of the Glorious Koran rather than simply The Koran. Part of the miracles of the Quran is said to be based on Ijaz , or Inimitability. Even for native Arabic speakers, the Quran is a difficult document. Its archaic language and verse structure are difficult hurdles to cross. People always admitted their inability to produce something similar to the Quran. And the translations of the Quran are considered, by some scholars, to be one form of trying to produce a similar Book. Translators of the Quran, it is important to note, encounter many difficulties in the process of translation. Those difficulties encountered are due to different reasons. First, some verses in the Quran complement each other, for that reason the translator of the Quran has to go back to the related verses in order to translate one verse; this stresses the idea that word for word translation is not to be used, especially in this context. The verse best illustrates this difficulty. This verse has two meanings: an internal meaning which is, trading is licit while usury is illicit, and it has also an external meaning: the two terms are different; they are not the same. This second meaning is not included in the text, but understood when one goes back to the previous verse: The external meaning, it has to be clear, is necessary in order to understand and translate a verse of the Quran. And that is the reason why some of the early translators of the Quran fell in ambiguities. The second problem that impedes the translation of the Quran is that some verses may be general; the form used in those verses includes everything, but the meaning of the verse is related to another verse which is specific. The verse: is considered a vivid example in this case. The reader cannot know the religion of the slave to free. But, if the translator goes back to the verse 92 of Surat Anissà ¢: The question of whether or not one should attempt to translate the Quran should be seen, mainly, in the context of translatability in general, instead of always relating it to the Arabic language. The Material Culture of the Quran Material culture includes all of the physical objects that people create and give meaning to. Clothing, architectural elements, and handmade carpets would be examples. An object only becomes part of culture after meaning has been given to it. Human beings perceive and understand the material things around them as they have learned to from their culture. In Arabic, there exist many terms that, even if they have their equivalence in other languages, they cannot be easily translated because they have a particular connotative meaning. Larson (1984: 132) warns the translator of the problems of the SL connotative meaning. In some verses of the Quran, there is reference to the donkey and the dog. Those two words have a negative connotation in Arabic, but they are neutral when translated into English for instance. The two words, in English, have a different connotative meaning. For example, the word dog is a symbol of loyalty (the dog is the mans best friend), whereas the donkey is considered, in the Islamic culture, a symbol of utter stupidity. Translation of the Quran and the Muslim scholars Because the Quran stresses its Arabic nature, some Muslim scholars believe that any translation cannot be more than an approximate interpretation, intended only as a tool for the study and understanding of the original Arabic text. They argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult. This factor is made more complex by the fact that the usage of words has changed a great deal between classical and modern Arabic. They argue also that the task of translation is not an easy one; some native Arab-speakers will confirm that some Quranic passages are difficult to understand even in the original Arabic. As a result, even Quranic verses which seem perfectly clear to native speakers accustomed to modern vocabulary and usage may not represent the original meaning of the verse. The original meaning of a Quranic passage will also be dependent on the historical circumstances of the Prophet Muhammads life and early community in which it originated. For this reason, one finds a detailed historical background in the introduction of any interpretation of the Quran. Conclusion The four parts discussed in this research project are not to be viewed as complete products, but they need to be polished and enriched further with other examples. The four main parts of this monograph seem to be very distinct, but, at near scrutiny, these parts are so closely linked because they share the same aim which is to highlight the fact that translation, as a field of knowledge, is very rich, and may be related to many other fields. As an interdisciplinary discipline, translation studies borrows much from the different fields of study that support translation. These include comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, terminology, and so forth. The present monograph, being an attempt to relate translation to other fields, tries to bring together translation and Islam in an attempt to show the untranslatable side of the Islamic culture, starting with a definition an

England :: essays research papers

England is a very small country with a huge population. This report will tell you some features and facts about this country. I will be talking about its people, it’s government, it’s industry, it’s resources, it’s land, and finally it’s religion. The reason I said England has a big population is because they have about 47,505,000 people living there. The numbers speak for themselves. Most of England’s population is descendants of the original inhabitants. There are Saxons, Angles, Jutes, Scandinavians, Norman French, Scots, Welsh, and Irish. Now commonwealth immigrants are coming from southern Asia. Since there are so many different kinds of people there has been a lot of fighting between them. England’s economy is very strong because of an excellent school system. Their school system is much like ours except they only have to attend school from ages 5 through 16. Although they don’t go to school as long as us they learn things at a faster rate and school involves harder work. The English also play sports. They are very good at soccer, Rugby and cricket. If you don’t know what cricket is its kind of a mix between bowling and baseball. England’s government also has a few similarities with ours. Even though there government is a monarchy and ours is a republic. Their current leader is Queen Elizabeth II. The Queen of England is more of a symbol than a ruler. The actual ruler is a cabinet of people. The head of the cabinet is the Prime Minister. England also has a law making body, which passes all the laws. They are like our congress. The capital of England is London and the government buildings are located in a region of London call Westminster. The center of England’s industry is based on its coal mining and natural gases. They also do things with nuclear energy. Although all these things make England most of its money agriculture and fishing does bring in some doe. They produce milk and other dairy products, and they farm vegetables and meat. Since England is an island there is a lot of water to fish so they have an abundance of resources in the ocean. Speaking of resources England has three main minerals coal, iron ore, and petroleum. As I said up in my last paragraph England gets a lot of seafood. The main ports are in Liverpool, Hull and Bristle. There aren’t many places ships can come in because of the rocky coastline.

Book Review of Rebellion in the Backlands by Euclides da Cunha :: essays research papers

Book Review of "Rebellion in the Backlands" By Euclides da Cunha Rebellion in the Backlands is set in the Northeastern backlands of Brazil. It is basically, a historical narration of a period of time (1896 and 1897) where the government of the Republic of Brazil decided to wage war against a religious group of people of about 5000. This group of people, lead by a charismatic religious leader named Antonio Conselheiro, did not accept the Brazilian government as their legitimate government and was therefore deemed a threat to the rest of the country. Some of the members of this rebellion were in fact very aggressive and uncontrollable. Eventually the Brazilian government led an attack on these people launching a battle that lasted almost a year and took the lives of hundreds of Brazilian army soldiers, and thousands of native Brazilian rebels. The poor, native people of the backlands proved impressive opposition and in fact defeated every single force sent against them and even killed the commander of the first expedition. Although, in the end the g overnments military did prevail over the rural people, and they were all eventually killed. Still, the interesting thing about his book is that it seems to demonstrate that there is more to the story than just a battle lost. When I began this assignment, I set out to read each and every page of this book. Unfortunately, it is not an easy book to read and due to time limitations as well as a curiosity to â€Å"peek ahead† to further chapters, I was subsequently constrained to skim the entire book. From what I did gather this is a very well written book, incredibly detailed, by someone who is clearly well educated in Latin American History as well as military tactics and it seems as though, geology and geography as well. The amount of imagery and detail that was put into the chapter on land alone was enough to fill it’s own book. â€Å"†¦an unlooked-for picture awaits the traveler †¦ all of which confers upon the landscape in a fuse in a distant and amazing blend of color.† The physical descriptions of the land were beautiful and vivid, but what really interested me was the chapter entitled â€Å"Man†. Being a psychology major, this was by far my preferred chapter. Here Da Cunha really gets into the meat of the story he is telling about Brazilian history.

Marketing and Politics :: Globalization, Culture, Informative

Global and Domestic Marketing Cultural: Globalization is an inevitable process, and so are the inevitable issues with different cultures. On the one hand, the world is becoming more homogeneous, and distinctions between national markets are not only fading but, for some products, will disappear altogether. This means that cultural difference is a global issue, not just the United States. On the other hand, the differences among nations, regions, and ethnic groups in terms of cultural factors are far from resolved. It is suggested that the claims for "a right to culture" by national states in recent years can be important criteria for trade policy making, intellectual property rights protection, and the resource for national interests. From a marketing point of view it is very important for marketers to realize the sensitivity of cultural differences. To be aware of and sensitive to the cultural differences is a major premise for the success of the marketplace. To determine the cultural understanding of market means that the professional should positively identify cultural factors that can be used to ease any marketing program. These factors may or may not exist in the targeted markets. One must also keep in mind that marketing can also influence culture. Such is the case in Mexico, where the United States has had such a cultural influence. Currently all the Jones in Mexico want to bye American product and mimic what Americans do. Promotion, for instance, is strongly influenced by the language. Product acceptance is affected by culturally based attitudes towards change. And distribution is influenced by social institutions, such as Versace.

Scholarship Program At Basic Successes And Challenges Education Essay

I. Introduction1.1 Socio economic in Cambodia after 1979The civil war has jeopardized the societal and economic development of Cambodia. Most of the societal constructions and rural substructures were wholly destroyed during Khmer Rouge, particularly educational sector, which is the most of import for developing the state ( Duggan, 1996, p.363 ) . Furthermore, Socio-economic environment for most of families after Khmer Rouge was frequently really hard for directing kids to school ( Ayres, 2000, p. 156 ) . In 1994, the state had about 5.2 million people below age 15 or about 47 per centum of the entire population. The size had been little down to around 5.1 million in 2004 and its portion of the entire population had fallen to 38 per centum. These alterations in the population construction have foremost affected the demand for primary and secondary schools. Some 3.7 million – 55 per centum, of the population aged 5-24 old ages were enrolled in the formal school system in 2004 – increased from 46 per centum in 1999. Adult literacy rate, population aged 15 and over, is 60 per centum for adult females and 80 per centum for work forces. The same survey stated that 43 per centum of adult females aged 25 and over have none or merely some instruction ( non completed foremost grade ) ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nis.gov.kh/cambodia socio-economic study 2004 ) . Since 1980 there was a 15-year period with high birthrate and strong population addition. After 1995 there has been a rapid diminution in birthrate and mortality. Harmonizing to the population projection the Kampuchean population was predicted to be 15 million in 2010 ( National Institute of Statistics of Ministry of Planning, 2009, pp. 5 ) . â€Å" Educational disbursals per pupil for one school twelvemonth include school fees, tuition, text editions, other school supplies, gifts to instructors, and part to edifice financess. Households estimate educational disbursals to below 50,000 riels ( US $ 10 ) for pre-school and primary school pupils, for upper secondary to 393,000 riels ( merely below US $ 100 ) , for technical/vocational 1.1 million riels ( merely above US $ 250 ) , and for university 2.1 million riels ( merely above US $ 500 ) † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nis.gov.kh/cambodia socio-economic study 2004 )1.2 History of Kampuchean Education after 1979Following adviser from UNICEF to supervising Cambodia instruction in 1980 identified there were chief three dimensions including crisis of qualify – deficit of qualified instructors and functionaries, crisis of orientation – a critical struggle and contradiction between the ends and construction of the system of bing educational system, and crisis of clocking – under proficient supported by Vietnamese advisers to make many things in really short period ( Ayres, 2000, p.132 ) . Another survey by CONCERN in 1991 found some challenges of instruction in that clip including unequal preparation and wage for instructors and educational functionaries, no chief text books and other stuffs to back up instruction, non adequate school edifices for pupils, and high dropout rate. Other chief job related to instruction for cardinal degree at that clip was hapless educational quality and irrelevant course of study. Other survey at provincial degree by Redd Barna besides found that low rate of attending, low accomplishment of pupils, challenges of integrate into schools for those whose are former refugees ( Ayres, 2000, pp. 156-157 ) . Even after general election in 1993 under supported by UN, quality of instruction service provided for basic instruction degrees is still in a serious status caused by the deficiency of resources, inappropriate-trained instructors, hapless managed system, about no instruction and acquisition stuffs and irresponsibleness ( World Bank, 2008, p.11 ) . Even, there have been considerable alterations late, educational system will non make an international instruction EFA ends by 2015, because the figure of â€Å" dropout and repeat † in primary school degree is still high. The â€Å" repeat rates † in primary dropped from 26.3 per centum to 10.2 per centum between 1998 and 2005. In add-on, drop-out rates in primary school is less than in secondary school ( MoEYS, 2008, p.8 ) . Recently, Cambodia has expanded national budget from 0.9 per centum in 1997 to 1.5 per centum in 2006 ( MoEYS & A ; World Bank, June 2008, p. 59 ) . Besides, the authorities has promised to increase wage for all instructors from 15 per centum to 20 per centum every twelvemonth but the exact sum is still really low in comparing to rising prices late and day-to-day disbursal ( MoEYS & A ; World Bank, June 2008, pp. 59-62 ) . Educational system in Cambodia consists of simple school ( grade 1-6 ) , junior high school ( grade 7-9 ) , senior high school ( grade 10-12 ) and university and other establishments of higher instruction. Compulsory instruction is until grade 9 ( The Council for the Development of Cambodia, 2011, p. I-2 ) . This research will concentrate on the undermentioned inquiries: Why does MoESY necessitate scholarship plan at basic instruction? What are the chief successes and challenges of execution scholarship plan at basic instruction degree? How does MoEYS implement scholarship plan at basic instruction more efficaciously?II. SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAM AT BASIC EDUCATION IN CAMBODIA2.1 Overview of scholarship planKAPE: It was the first scholarship officially lunched in Cambodia since 200 and it covered 15 secondary schools in Kampong Cham state merely but it was for lone misss. The chief ground of initial this plan because merely one of five misss can intake into lower secondary schools in Kampong Cham state and as consequence in over 3,000 vulnerable misss and male childs in schools presents ( KAPE, 2008, p. 4 ) . However, misss other states were similar or more serious than state of affairs in Cambodia, it would be better if the undertaking expands to other schools and state to let other misss to acquire benefit from it and increase figure of misss to hold wide cognition and can dispute with work forces in society both public and private sectors. PAP12: Scholarships and Incentives for Equitable Access. A major constituent of this programme was a scholarship strategy for lower secondary pupils, targeted peculiarly at misss in hapless countries. The plan stared in 2003-04 ( BETT, 2004, p. 1 ) and covered to 30 scholarships each school of 215 lower secondary schools in 16 states ( Mar Bray & A ; Seng Bunly, 2005, p. 24 & A ; 72 ) . If we have a expression of entire figure of each school, which covered by this plan, it was really little in term of instruction in Cambodia right now because there about 19.5 per centum of urban people in 2009 ( Asian Development Bank ( ADB ) , Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2010 ) . The coverage schools and states, and entire Numberss of scholarships each school were far off from sum of pupils in each secondary primary school even in rural and distant countries. The pupils are out of mark states were suffered from exclusion and even some schools in Phnom Penh would be covered. JFPR in concurrence with ADB: Stared in 2003-04 ( BETT, 2004, p. 1 ) and targeted 93 lower secondary schools in 21 states and provided 75 scholarships for each mark school ( Mar Bray & A ; Seng Bunly, 2005, p. 72 ) . If we have a looks sum of states were likely really wide but in term of entire targeted schools were really little coverage, therefore, it would be better if the plan could cover the schools that non covered by PAP12 to let another hapless and poorest kids to hold an chance to acquire scholarship. BETT: stared in 2003-04 ( BETT, 2004, p. 1 ) Funded by BTC and targeted 80 lower secondary schools in merely three states and provided 30 scholarships each school. It was excessively little for both coverage states or schools and even figure of scholarship for each school, therefore, it would be non most affect for overall basic instruction in Cambodia late. CESSP: This was a formal plan after integrated of chief scholarship plans for lower secondary schools in Cambodia to avoid any overlap schools or even receivers but it still covered merely 100 lower secondary schools ( including newly-established schools ) in 21 states ( BETT, 2005, about the undertaking ) . Although MoEYS found the good manner to implement scholarship plan ore effectual but it was still non good plenty because coverage schools and states still limited. In order to cognize that scholarship would be more effectual to better instruction in Cambodia, particularly at basic instruction degree, the plan should be covered all lower secondary schools at countrywide or to all hapless and the poorest kids.2.2 Successs2.2.1 School registrationCSP had a critical consequence on school registration and attending. Recipients increased 16 per centum points of registration in school, 17 per centum points increased of go toing on the twenty-four hours of the unheralded visit ; pass mo re clip in school. Based on the study stated that one out of every five receivers would non hold been in school in the absence of the plan, with on-time class patterned advance, hence, it would anticipate that every 5th receiver would hold completed one more twelvemonth of schooling than comparable non-recipients ( Deon Filmer & A ; Norbert Schady, 2009, pp. 12-17 )2.2.2 Target doneesThe plan was right emphasized household poorness and gender precedence to do certain equity of entree to basic instruction and gender instability in registration. The scholarship besides provided residence hall to research the new ways to promote pupils at high-risk to go on their survey at lower secondary school – a instance in Rattanakiri state. Furthermore, the plan achieved highly decreased drop-out rates of pupils every bit much as 60 % than general 7th class rated in comparing to non-recipients schools. However, entire sum that support by undertaking late was non plenty for each receiver ye t that some of receivers still dropped out even in period of implementing period ( William Collins, 2007, pp. 47-48 ) .2.2.3 Impact on workThe survey stated the receivers were approximately 10 per centum improbable to work for wage and the survey besides mentioned that about 37 per centum of misss and about 31 per centum of male childs who did non scholarship receivers work for wage in seven yearss before the survey was conducted. Furthermore, many scholarship receivers stayed in school longer than non-recipients ( Deon Filmer & A ; Norbert Schady, 2009, p.2 ) .2.2.4 Conditional Cash Transfers ( CCTs )The CCTs plan impacts on a assortment of results including school registration. However, positive impacts may mention to amount of hard currency transportation and this manner is set abouting by many developing states in the universe. It would besides cut down poorness or support hapless household. The same survey stated that kids who received larger transportations did better than tho se who received smaller transportations in other dimensions – even the survey found that all receivers were brought into school as a consequence of plans ( Deon Filmer & A ; Norbert Schady, 2009, pp. 12-13 )2.2.5 Impact on other kidsThere were major two groups who could hold been straight affected including siblings of scholarship receivers, and kids who did non have scholarships because their dropout mark placed them above the cut-off for eligibility. The siblings of scholarship receivers could hold benefited from the plan since each family could utilize the same benefit for other kids or other purpose. Non-recipients who were enrolled in the same schools as receivers may alter some disadvantages attitude in order to hold an chance to acquire scholarship for following academic old ages. However, the consequences suggest no such consequence: the school engagement of non-recipients is unaffected by the comparative size of the incoming cohort of scholarship pupils ( Deon Filmer & A ; Norbert Schady, 2009, p.2 )2.2.6 Monitoring and preparationIn scholarship plan of BETT was hired full clip staff improbable JFPR or CESSP, who their staff members were parttime basic. Besides, BETT coverage was smaller than either the JFPR or CESSP that allowed staff members have clip to carry on visits to many mark schools and that allowed BETT to cognize more elaborate about issues happened within receivers. Due to budget, transit and clip restraints, the undertaking truly need external aid to back up monitoring such as proficient functionaries from MoEYS, PoE and DoE but it was encountered that the relevant functionaries were improbable had full experience or skillful about that affair yet ( William Collins, 2007, pp. 53-54 ) . BETT attack of a dedicated full-time squad, with NGOs developing background, willing to utilize external NGOs aid in the preparation exercising, achieves higher quality consequences of the execution. Orientation to rear about the plan was besides benefited and positive impacted every bit good as enhance answerability of school functionaries and guarantee right policy pattern. Besides, improved communicating between parents and schools functionaries would reenforce community support for local schools ( William Collins, 2007, pp. 54 ) .2.3. Challenges2.3.1 The mathematics and vocabulary abilityThe survey was focused on the two chief parts including numeral and capacity of understanding plants through MoEYS course of study and text edition. The mark kids were both receivers and non-recipients, the consequences stated that both receivers and non-recipients are the same if those pupils entree the school regular and no absence. However, the survey besides covered to out-school kids and the determination stated that kids who had completed more schooling hold higher trial tonss – in both mathematics and vocabulary, and kids who dropped out of school before finishing 7th class may hold lower ability than those who stayed in school beyond than that class ( Deon Filmer & A ; Norbert Schady, 2009, pp. 8-10 ) .2.3.2 Coverage countriesThe overall scholarship plans implementing in Cambodia were non for countrywide yet even PAP12 – manage and implement by MoEYS, merely covered 215 lower secondary schools within 16 states merely and provided merely 30 scholarships for each mark school. Second, JFPR in concurrence with the ADB covered 93 lower secondary schools in 19 states and could merely cover 75 scholarships for each school. Third, BETT Project supported by BTC covered in 69 lower secondary schools in three states and covered merely 30 scholarships to each school ( Mar Bray & A ; Seng Bunly, 2005, pp. 71-72 and BETT, 2004 & A ; 2005, p. 2 ) . Another one by KAP E, local NGO, merely covered 21 lower secondary schools in Kampong Cham state merely ( KAPE, 2008, p. 4 )2.3.3 Target doneesThe four scholarship plans as brief description in portion of Coverage Areas ( 2.3.2 ) stated that the plan started coverage pupils at lower secondary schools in selected states and countries within Cambodia ( KAPE, 2008, p. 4 ) . Following indexs 2006-07 of MoEYS stated that net registration ratio about 92.1 per centum at primary but it was merely 33.7 per centum at secondary ( MoEYS, 2006-07, indexs 2006-07 ) , therefore, about 58.4 per centum was dropped out at that academic twelvemonth and most of drop-out would be kids from hapless and poorest families and some. BETT scholarship plan purposes at increasing passage for hapless and vulnerable kids from primary to take down secondary and advancing patterned advance through lower secondary instruction in the three targeted states. But the same study stated that the plan excluded certain classs of appliers, for illustration, kids of authorities households, who excluded by the JFPR design and initial BETT design but non excluded in the CESSP design. In the 3rd twelvemonth of BETT execution, the exclusion was dropped. The exclusion would hold two negative impacts because governmental households were non all hapless even instructors every bit many as local hapless appliers or it would be hazard to go politicized and used as an extra manner to honor authorities and party functionary at the local degree ( William Collins, 2007, p. 12 & A ; 48 ) .III. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIONBy and large, the scholarship plans were implemented by MoEYS and other spouses were really good for pupils at lower secondary schools across Cambodia and the plan would assist to make EFA and basic instruction policies by 2015 following the committedness of authorities and MoEYS every bit good as planetary mark. It besides allowed hapless and the poorest kids have an chance to go on their survey without give more load to their household and parents every bit good as cut down authorities load, excessively. Although execution period was normally short clip and even policies implementing of each establishment was improbable the same but the receivers could acquire profit from the plans chiefly increase registration, addition engagements, stayed longer period in schools than earlier or non-recipients. Even receivers were non better in term of mathematics and vocabulary in comparing to non-recipients, who non absence, at least the plans could maintain low-ability pupils in schools and made alter some non-recipients to take into history of acquisition and take parting in schools. The scholarship plans probably started and ended the same period and some of them were overlap mark schools and states but they had ain difference policies for execution, therefore, it was negative affect to receivers and donees every bit good as negative affect to whole plans. Furthermore, school managers, DoE, PoE, who on a regular basis involved with the plan would non be clear at all that was perchance to detain some activities, excessively or pass a tonss but got really small. In order to implement the plan more effectual, all relevant stakeholders would incorporate and portion responsible each other first and happen the common ways or seek to follow policies to be similar or the same first to guarantee receivers and relevant stakeholders would be clear and full apprehension. Besides, it would be great if all implementing establishments can split states or mark schools of coverage. The last, but non at least, all hapless and the poorest or the most of them would be covered and back up it would be better and it likely find the right ways of improve instruction in Cambodia, particularly at basic instruction degree. Statement Name: Cham Soeun Date: March 18, 2011 I prepared the undermentioned assignment by myself and merely with the aid of the literature mentioned in the mentions. I did non utilize other literature to compose my assignment. I know that plagiarism is a serious offense and I am wholly cognizant of the negative effects. Signature: Cham Soeun